• Vidika Mirpuri

The project aims to investigate concepts in detector response in the extensive air showers area by means of structural equation modelling. Three concepts were explored: muon detection by absorption in the soil, radiofrequency (RF) antenna detection, and hybrid measurements which are made using the electron-photon and hadronic components of the shower. The ideas were utilized in the form of R1, R2 and R3 i.e. as latent variables and were examined through 15 factors of Likert scale and Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). There were 98 entries in the records and were processed using Smart PLS 4. While the Cronbach’s alpha was at 0.867 for R1, it was found to be at 0.838 for R2 and at 0.815 for R3. As for composite reliability (rho_c), the figures for R1, R2 and R3 were 0.904, 0.882 and 0.865 respectively. Average variance extracted (AVE) was at 0.652, 0.600 and at 0.521 respectively. Reliability and convergent validity were acquired by all three components because of these statistics. The design involved two paths which were theorized based on concepts R1→R2 and R1→R3 and had standardized coefficients of path 0.360 and 0405 respectively. In general, the study demonstrated how physics problem can be reformulated into a range of measurable latent concepts that are assessed using PLS-SEM.

Extensive air showers, detector response modelling, hadronic interaction models, radio detection, gamma-hadron separation, PLS-SEM, SmartPLS.

"Structural Equation Modelling of Detector Response in Hadron-Initiated Extensive Air Showers: A PLS-SEM Approach", International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research (www.jetir.org), ISSN:2349-5162, Vol.13, Issue 10, page no.b545-b559, October-2026, Available :http://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR2610157.pdf

"Structural Equation Modelling of Detector Response in Hadron-Initiated Extensive Air Showers: A PLS-SEM Approach", International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research (www.jetir.org | UGC and issn Approved), ISSN:2349-5162, Vol.13, Issue 10, page no. ppb545-b559, October-2026, Available at : http://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR2610157.pdf